Mummification

=Mummification = By: Michael Napolitano

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=<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Mummification in Ancient Egypt =

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Mummification is the process of preserving a body by drying it out and wrapping it with linen. This practice was very important to the Ancient Egyptians as they believed that the bodies of the dead needed to be preserved for the afterlife. Throughout the long history of Egypt the process of mummification was used to assure that the dead would have a body to use in the afterlife. Throughout the years the process was refined from pre-dynastic times, when it was more of a natural process, up until the Roman period when mummy portraits were used. The process of mummification coincides with Egyptian religious beliefs and their __mythology__ is woven in tightly. The practice has gone a long way to give us insight into their daily lives, mythology, and afterlife, and to shape our view of what it meant to be an Egyptian.

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Some of the first mummies we have discovered date back to predynastic times and look much different than the mummies from the dynastic periods. A specimen referred to as Ginger, because of his red hair, dates back to 3300 B.C. and was found lying in the fetal position in a shallow dug out grave with a few grave goods. Whether or not the mummification of this individual was intentional or not is unknown because of a naturally occurring process that happens when an organism is buried in the Egyptian desert. The hot, dry sand which contains natron, a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate, will severely dry out anything buried in the desert and not allow for decay (Lucas, 1932). It is hypothesized that the Ancient Egyptians discovered this naturally occurring process of mummification and elaborated on it throughout the generations, refining the art and mixing in aspects of their religion to create one of the most studied burial practices of the ancient world.
 * Background**

The art of mummification is a refined religious process. In some regards, being mummified was the most important part of an Egyptian’s life. The process varied slightly throughout the ages, especially after the fall of the New Kingdom. Generally the embalming process consisted of 7 steps, lasted about 70 days, and took place at “per nefer” or The House of the Beautiful (Dupras, 2009). The first step was the removal of soft body tissue and the organs through a small incision made on the left side of the abdomen. The stomach, intestines, liver, and lungs were removed and preserved in natron which removed all of the moisture (Lucas, 1932). The organs were placed in canopic jars where they would be well preserved in natron because they would need to reunite with the body in the afterlife. For a Pharaoh the stoppers of the jars would bear his face. For anybody else the heads were represented the four sons of Horus; Imseti, the human protected the liver, Hapi the baboon protected the lungs, Duamutef the jackal proteced the stomach and Qebehsenuef the falcon protected the intestines (Dupras, 2009). These jars were stored in a chest that was placed in the tomb with the body. The third step in the process of mummification involved the removal of the brain. A sharp instrument was placed up the nose through the ethmoid bone and the brain was stirred until it liquefied and then drained out of the nostrils when the body was turned face down (Malnasi, 2009). In step four the body is prepared for the embalming process by being washed down with wine, which was used as an antiseptic, and rubbed with spices. Then the body is covered in natron for forty days causing the body to dry out and become leathery. Sacred oils are then rubbed all over the skin to soften it. The body is dried and cleaned in the fifth step and an Eye of Horus amulet is placed over the incision that was made to remove the organs. Then the body is dressed with jewelry and covered in linen shroud. This is also when the body is bound with linen strips which have the name of the mummy written on the ends. Amulets are placed in between the layers of bandages. The ankh symbolized life, the Djed amulet for strength and stability, the amulet of Tjt which was associated with Isis was to protect the limbs, and the scarab was symbolic for rebirth and regeneration (Malnasi, 2009). Each =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> = layer was coated with bitumen, a type of resin. In the sixth step a face mask that resembled the person being mummified was placed over the head and shoulders of the mummy so that the body could be recognized by the two parts of the person’s spirit, the Ba and the Ka. The mask might be made from solid gold for a pharaoh or noble, otherwise it was probably wood or cartonnage. In the last step, the mummy was placed into a coffin which was placed into a sarcophagus which was built into the tomb to ensure the safety of the mummy. In the old kingdom the sarcophagus was made of wood and rectangular in shape. By the New Kingdom the sarcophagus had an anthropoid shape and some were made of gold. In the Roman period the sarcophagus was no longer used and was replaced by Mummy Portraits (Dupras, 2009). All these steps were taken because the ancient Egyptians believed that the body had to be well preserved for use in the afterlife. Once the body arrived at the tomb after a long and elaborate funeral procession (for royalty) the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony took place. In this ceremony the priest would touch the mummy on its mouth to restore its senses so it could eat, drink, speak, and breathe in the afterlife. The mummy was then placed in the tomb and the mourners would feast at the tomb entrance. The waste from the feast was buried nearby in embalming caches. The tomb was then sealed with the hopes of keeping out grave robbers and animals that would disturb the resting mummy (Dupras, 2009).
 * Process**

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Mummification of animals
The Ancient Egyptians had animal companions in life, and in death as well. Many animals, from cats and dogs to baboons and elephants have been found mummified in tombs. Those who could afford to prepared their tombs abundantly with everything they would need in the afterlife. The kings of the first dynasty dating back to 2950 B.C. were buried with dogs, lions, and donkeys (Williams, 2009). Animals were also mummified so that the deceased would have gourmet food in the afterlife. Fine cuts of beef, ducks, pigeons, and other animals were salted, dried, and wrapped in linen to assure that those who could afford it were well fed for eternity. The embalming process for animals was similar to the one for humans but different embalming materials, either sugar gum, or lipid based, have been found with and identified in different mummified animals (Buckley, 2004). This shows that different animals were embalmed in slightly different ways with different chemical processes. There were also those animals that were revered and therefore mummified because they were living representatives of a god. These sacred animals even had their own embalming houses. The embalming house of the Apis bull, one of the most revered animals in all of ancient Egypt, was in Memphis (Williams, 2009). The bull was closely linked to the all-powerful king and was a symbol of strength and virility. In life the bull was pampered by priests, and worshipped by the masses. When the bull died, it was believed that his divine essence would move onto another bull. A search for the next sacred Apis bull would begin but the body of the deceased bull was mummified and laid to rest in the Temple. The bull’s burial day was an occasion of national mourning. There were also many other sacred animals worshipped at different cult centers including, fish at Esna, rams at Elephantine Island, and crocodiles at Kom Ombo (Williams, 2009). At Istabl Antar animals were offered up as votive objects during yearly festivals. They were buried by the millions and were the most numerous of mummies. Animal mummies can be found all along the Nile River from Upper Egypt up through the river delta (Williams, 2009).

Afterlife
The idea of death in Ancient Egypt was certainly a unique one. The Ancient Egyptians did not regard death as the end but as another transformation in the cycle of life. The concept of rebirth was one that was deeply rooted in Ancient Egyptian Mythology as seen in the Osiris Myth. Death, rebirth, mummification, and the Ba and Ka (two parts of the Ancient Egyptian soul) have their genesis in and are central themes to the myth.



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The Ancient Egyptians believed that the afterlife was the same as the living world. Just as they had to work in life they would also have to work in the afterlife, and just as they didn't want to work in life, they didn't want to work in death. For many Ancient Egyptians daily labor consisted of agricultural activity. To avoid having to do these tasks in the afterlife the Ancient Egyptians created and were buried with Shabti or Ushebti which translates to "The One Who Answers". They were little statues of workmen who would come to life and work for the person who they were buried with so that the Ancient Egyptians could leisurely enjoy their afterlife.



Conclusion
=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Mummification is seen as a fascinating aspect of Ancient Egyptian culture but there was much more to the practice. By studying how they prepared their dead for the afterlife we can gain insight into how they lived. Through archaeology we can see that the process of mummification was more than a funerary ritual in fact, death was arguably the most important part of an Ancient Egyptian’s life. The Egyptians had a rich religious mythology and they sought to reach the afterlife, which they viewed as “perfect Egypt”, by appeasing these gods and passing the weighing of the heart ceremony (David, 2003). In the next life, the Egyptians would need everything they had in their first life, including a well preserved body. Everything else they felt was important in their lives would also be needed, which is why by studying how they died, we can essentially learn how they lived. The practice of mummification gives clues to the Ancient Egyptian's knowledge of medicine and human anatomy as well as to which organs they thought were most important for preservation (Dupras, 2009). Just as we can learn about ancient Egyptian medical practices from studying mummification, the Egyptians themselves gained much knowledge about the human body from the process. The practice of mummification was also most certainly a religious ceremony in its own right. The chief embalmer impersonated Anubis, wearing the mask of the Jackal headed God. The whole ceremony could be said to be a re-enactment of the mythological embalming of Osiris and workshop more of a religious shrine than simply a place to perform the procedure. Even with all the information we have about mummification from ancient text there may be many errors and omissions in our understanding of the technique (Dawson, 1927). It is because of Ancient Egyptian culture, mythology, and environment that we have been able to discover so much about their way of life through physical and material archaeology. As the mummies that were buried in an attempt at immortality are being admired, observed, and studied the culture of Ancient Egypt lives on in pop-culture, fantasy, and academia.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bibliography = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Aufderheide, Arthur C., Michael Zlonis, Larry L. Cartmell, Michael R. Zimmerman, Peter Sheldrick, Megan Cook, and Joseph E. Molto 1999 Human Mummification Practices at Ismant el-Kharab: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 85:197-210

Dawson, Warren R. 1927 Making a Mummy: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 13(1/2):40-49

David, Rosalie 2003 Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File Inc.

Dupras, Tosha 2009 Life and Death in Ancient Egypt: Class lecture

Lucas, A. 1932 The Use of Natron in Mummification: Egypt Exploration Society 18(3/4):125-140

Malnasi, Cindy 2009 Life and Death in Ancient Egypt: Mummification lecture

Wenke, Robert J. 1989 Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies: Annual Review of Anthropology 18:129-155.

Williams, A.R. 2009 Animals Everlasting: National Geographic 216(5):31-51

Module 12: =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> = =<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> =

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Module 13:

Title:Authors:|slrl','');|Buckley, Stephen A.1 |slrl','');|Clark, Katherine A.2 |slrl',);|Evershed, Richard P.2 r.p.evershed@bristoI.ac.ukSource:|jdbaphjnh||ssJN "Nature"||sljh',);|Nature; 9/16/2004, Vol. 431 Issue 7006, p294-299, 6p Summary: There have been millions of animal mummies, including mammals, birds, and reptiles have been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs. In comparison to human mummies there was not a lot of care or expense put into the practice. The process however, was just as complex. This shows how the Ancient Egyptians regarded animals. They were both domesticated and regarded as representatives of the gods and thus treated with great respect. This could elude to what role the Ancient Egyptians thought their animals would play in the afterlife. Animal Mummies Burial Sites- National Geographic

Module 14: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Human Mummification Practices at Ismant el-Kharab**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Author(s): Arthur C. Aufderheide, Michael Zlonis, Larry L. Cartmell, Michael R. Zimmerman, Peter Sheldrick, Megan Cook and Joseph E. Molto
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Source: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 85, (1999), pp. 197-210
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Published by: [|Egypt Exploration Society]
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3822436

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Abstract
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">An estimated 169 inhumations were identified in 15 tomb chambers of the west cemetery at the Roman Period site of Ismant el-Kharab (Kellis) in Egypt's Dakhleh Oasis in the western desert. Of these, 50 were in the form of mummified human remains, about half of which represented deliberate, anthropogenic ('artificial') mummification. Comparison of mortuary practices with contemporary ones of the Nile Valley revealed some general similarities but also some exceptional differences. The most spectacular of these involved the production of composite mummies, prepared by using parts from multiple, different bodies, lashing them to a wood rack and wrapping the whole in such a manner as to resemble the external appearance of a traditional, single, mummified adult cadaver.

summary: Throughout Ancient Egypt it appears that making artificial mummies with an anthropomorphic shape took place, using parts from multiple mummies. This raises many questions as to what significance the mortuary practices may have held to the Ancient Egyptians beyond the obvious of burying the dead. Deliberate "artificial" mummification may have become more prevalent in the Roman Period for Religious or other socio-cultural reasons.

Module 7 Interest paragraph: Mummification has captured the interest of western civilizations for hundreds of years but it is more than simply an elaborate burial process. Mummification was a crucial step in the lives of the ancient Egyptians. For them it was the beginning of the after life and they would need their bodies to be preserved so they could be used in the next world, which to them would be just like Egypt only everything would be perfect. Mummification was an delicate process with many steps and through studying and understanding how the ancient Egyptians died we can actually gain more insight onto how they lived and what they felt was important in their lives. How they were mummified, what they were buried with, and what inscriptions were put on the tomb walls are all important clues to be studied and consequently where most of our knowledge about Egyptian life comes from.

Module 8 JSTOR: "The Floodplains along the Nile constitute an important but as yet little utilized series of laboratories for the comparative study of the origins and interaction of ancient civilizations." “Kerma: The Rise of an African Civilization,” Bruce G. Trigger, __The International Journal of African Historical Studies__, Vol. 9, No. 1. (1976)

Module 9 Annual Review of Anthropology article: Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">
 * =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies =
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Robert J. Wenke
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Annual Review of Anthropology], Vol. 18, (1989), pp. 129-155
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Published by: [|Annual Reviews]
 * =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Use of Natron in Mummification =
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A. Lucas
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology], Vol. 18, No. 3/4 (Nov., 1932), pp. 125-140
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Published by: [|Egypt Exploration Society]
 * =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Making a Mummy =
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Warren R. Dawson
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology], Vol. 13, No. 1/2 (Apr., 1927), pp. 40-49
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Published by: [|Egypt Exploration Society]

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bibliography = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Aufderheide, Arthur C., Michael Zlonis, Larry L. Cartmell, Michael R. Zimmerman, Peter Sheldrick, Megan Cook, and Joseph E. Molto 1999 Human Mummification Practices at Ismant el-Kharab: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 85:197-210

Dawson, Warren R. 1927 Making a Mummy: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 13(1/2):40-49

David, Rosalie 2003 Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File Inc.

Dupras, Tosha 2009 Life and Death in Ancient Egypt: Class lecture

Lucas, A. 1932 The Use of Natron in Mummification: Egypt Exploration Society 18(3/4):125-140

Malnasi, Cindy 2009 Life and Death in Ancient Egypt: Mummification lecture

Wenke, Robert J. 1989 Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies: Annual Review of Anthropology 18:129-155.

Williams, A.R. 2009 Animals Everlasting: National Geographic 216(5):31-51