Art

= Ancient Egyptian Art =

Though ancient Egyptian art existed as far back as 5000 BCE, the stylized and symbolic art that we know it came into existence around 3000 BCE during the second and third dynasties. Despite the abundance of art produced throughout Egypt's history, ancient Egyptians had no word for art and had no concept of art for art's sake. Art was designed to show the ideal and permanent aspects of life; to embody life and sometimes even contain the essence of a person (their //ka//) for all of eternity.

Ancient Egyptian art is one of the most easily recognized styles in the world. One of the most remarkable aspects of ancient Egyptian art was its stability; there was only slight changes in the canonical forms for over three millennia. Archaeologists have been excavating and collecting Egyptian artifacts for over a hundred years now, and through comparison and modern dating techniques we are able to identify the slight changes in art throughout Egypt's long history.

Egyptian art reflected a concern for order; balanced works of art that contained distinctive outlines and simplified shapes were the norm. Figures were arranged on horizontal rows called registers. However, a person’s social status would determine their size within a given scene, rather than their distance from the artist. Pharaohs were always depicted as the largest figure in a scene. When preparing to paint or carve, artists would draw out a grid of lines to ensure the proper proportions. Though there was variation in the early forms, by the Old Kingdom rules regarding proportion were established. The human figure was measured out according to palm widths: from feet to hairline is 18 palms high, the face is two palms high, and the shoulders were placed sixteen palms from the base of the figure.¹ This formatting would ensure consistency in Egyptian art for centuries.
 * Canons of Egyptian Art **

Egyptian artists did not generally depict emotions on the face because they reflected temporary conditions, not permanent aspects of life.² Their focus was to reflect things as they would be forever, rather than how they are in a specific moment. In outdoor scenes, artists did not add light and shadow to the figures either, again because these aspects were only temporary and they believed they were making art for eternity. Noted changes in this general rule appear in the Middle Kingdom, and continue through the Amarna Period.

The Pharaoh's regalia that symbolized his or her power to maintain order, and symbols of Egyptian gods and goddesses, were pervasive in Egyptian art. Egyptian religious beliefs were a dominating theme in both two and three dimensional art. Animals were usually also highly symbolic figures, often used to represent the gods. Much of the art produced by the Egyptians dealt with their beliefs about the continuation of this life into the next, including their firm belief in mummification. Egyptians viewed east as the direction of life and rebirth since the sun rose in the east; west was seen as the direction of death and the afterlife, since the sun set in the west and then journeyed through the underworld to be born again each morning. Due to these beliefs, pharaohs were often depicted looking east, the gods and goddesses of the afterlife and underworld, in turn, were often depicted facing the west.
 * Themes & Symbolism in Egyptian Art **

Colors were chosen with care in Egyptian art, following certain rules. Men were usually depicted with darker skin than women, perhaps because men spent more time outside working in the sun. Blue and green represented the Nile and life; yellow stood for the sun god; and red represented power and vitality. The colors in Egyptian artifacts have survived well over the time due to the arid climate. Hieroglyphs were often written in a certain color to enhance their meaning, for example, blue and gold often indicated divinity because of their connection with precious metals and gems.

Despite the relatively unchanging rules about proportion in art, there are still distinctive features that one can use to recognize Egyptian art by period. Individual artists are not known, and often groups of artists would collaborate on large projects. It is believed that there may have been specialists according to applications; sculpture artists, relief artists, and painters may have chosen their specific trade. The artistic tradition is split into Predynastic and Early Dynastic ca. 4210 BCE - 2680 BCE, the Old Kingdom ca. 2680 - 2258 BCE, the Middle Kingdom ca. 2258 - 1786 BCE, the New Kingdom ca. 1786 - 1085 BCE, the Amarna Period 1085 - 1055 BCE, and the Late Period ca. 1055 - 287 BCE. These dates are approximate, and there is overlap in many instances. In cases of doubt scholars usually associate the piece first with its dynasty, then with its appropriate period.

 The Predynastic and Dynastic Periods were before the rules of proportion were established, and early works are largely known from grave goods in Upper Egypt. The Predynastic period is broken into sub-periods: Naqada I, Naqada II, Naqada III (or Dynasty “0”). Black topped pottery was common during the Naqada I period (also referred to as Amratian), which then evolved into painted pottery often depicting what appears to be religious or social ceremonies. The use of boats on the Nile river as symbols of the journey of life and death began in this early art, as seen in wall paintings from tomb 100 in Heirakonpolis. ⁵
 * Predynastic & Early Dynastic **

Many symbols that would become tradition can be seen in other Predynastic and Early Dynastic art as well. Portrayal of Kings as divine began with the formation of the first dynasties; the most well known example of this is the Narmer palette. On the palette he is depicted as larger than everyone in the scene and is shown smiting his enemies without any help, indicating his superhuman status over them. Also seen in the Narmer palette are animals with human features representing gods and goddesses, a feature that would repeat itself in Egyptian art for thousands of years.

In this piece, the view of the King’s face, legs, and arms from the side combined with the frontal view of his torso and eye are easily recognized as distinctive characteristics that would be present in Egyptian art for centuries. Despite changes in the rules regarding proportion, this palette set the standard for the hallmark composite view of people and gods depicted in Egyptian art.

 **The Old Kingdom typically begins with the first ruler of the Fourth Dynasty, Sneferu, and ends with the termination of the Eighth Dynasty. It is during this time that the rules were set in Egyptian art, because of this, the time period is often referred to as the Egyptian classic period. Much of the art produced during this period was funerary in nature. In sculpture, portraits of Kings and Queens were produced for their burial chambers en masse. These sculptures would serve as houses for the deceased if their mummy was destroyed. These statues were made to last forever, as the Egyptians thought the next life was eternal. Most statues have the body drawn in tightly, with little or no projecting parts that could easily be broken. The Egyptians believed if the statue was imperfect, that the soul could not (or would not) live within it.
 * Old Kingdom

The statue of Menkaure and his wife, Khamerernebty shown at left is an excellent example of this type of portrait sculpture. The piece originally stood in the Valley temple of Menkaure’s pyramid complex at Giza. The figures are cut into the stone, but the artist left them attached to it, to guard against frailty. The couple both stare off into space, rigidly and formally posed. The King and Queen’s faces are both perfectly  symmetrical and devoid of emotional expression. Other than the Queen’s embrace (indicating marriage), they show no other connection to one another.  Examples of non-royal portraits, however have been seen to show more realism in their portrayal of the individuals. The wood statue of Ka-Aper from the Fifth Dynasty shows a realistic portrait of a middle aged man. This sculpture was found in Ka-Aper’s simple mastaba tomb at Saqqara. The rock crystal eyes make this wooden sculpture appear more real, as did the plaster and paint that adorned it originally. Though his stance is traditional, as are the objects he holds (indicative of his social standing), the rest of the sculpture is more realistic and moves away from the conventions applied to creating royal portraits. Ka-Aper was important enough to have a statue of this size made for him, but perfection of form was usually reserved for royalty.

 ** The Middle Kingdom begins with the Eleventh Dynasty and ends with the Fourteenth. This period followed a time of instability known as the First Intermediate Period, during which country was in a constant state of political instability and the art reflected this. Middle Kingdom art represents the tension  between the royally endorsed forms and those of the provincial workshops that were established in the  First Intermediate Period. One of the distinctive features of Middle Kingdom art can be seen in the subject   matter of wall reliefs. Rather than only royal events, there are scenes from everyday life and nature. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Block statues began being produced in the Middle Kingdom, more than likely <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> representing a person with <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">their knees drawn to their chest under a cloak. These were funerary items that were then inscribed with names, titles, epithets, and prayers for the deceased to ensure their wealth in the afterlife. The block statue shown here belonged to Sitepehu, who was an overseer of priests during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE). <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">
 * Middle Kingdom

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There is also a recognizable change in the way that Kings are portrayed in sculpture. Kings of this period appear to have more emotion on their face than the statues of the Old Kingdom. The Face of Senwosret III (at left) is the perfect example of these changes in royal portrait sculpture. The furrowed brow and heavy eyes show the years on the King's face. This is one of the rare occurrences of royal art in which a king is shown as himself, exemplifying his humanity. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> ** New Kingdom ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> The Middle Kingdom fell to the Hyksos, and remained under their control through the Second Intermediate Period. The Eighteenth Dynasty was founded by Amhose I; beginning the New Kingdom. This period is considered the third great era in Egyptian culture. In art, this period is known for its monumental <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> architecture and statuary. There was also a dramatic increase in the amount of art produced for non-royal use.

One of the most remarkable figures during this period was Hatshepsut, the woman who declared herself pharaoh. Her impact on the art and architecture was immense. She commissioned her mortuary temple to be built in Deir el-Bahri, and it has become known as one of the most magnificent architectural achievements of the ancient world.

Early statues of her as pharaoh show markedly feminine traits such as the one shown to the left. The titles listed on the base were even changed from the masculine “Son of Re” and “Ruler of Two Lands” to “Daughter of Re” and “Lady of Two Lands.” Later artwork depicting her as pharaoh shows her as masculine, often wearing men’s clothing and the traditional false beard. This is shown in many statues, like that of her as the sphinx, shown at right. Her challenges to gender roles in ancient Egypt were not only applied to depictions of herself; all other individuals were depicted as more feminine, perhaps to balance out her masculine evolution.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> During this time period, when Nefertiti reigned with her husband Akhenaten, there became an intense <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> interest in naturalistic depictions of individuals, rather than the standardized and idealized portraits of the past. After Akhenaten changed the religion of Egypt to monotheism, there are definite changes in art, especially in depictions of the royal family and everyday life.
 * Amarna Period **

One indicator of these changes can be seen on a stela found at Amarna, the date of which is believed to be 1350 BCE. A noticeable difference can be seen between the eye shape of Nefertiti and that of her husband, indicating that this dissimilarity was representative of an actual physical difference.³ At this time, the pharaoh is often shown with androgynous features, his daughters have elongated necks and skulls, and the queen is portrayed with an elongated neck and the <span class="wiki_link_ext"> epicanthic eye fold.

Some argue that these are merely symbolic representations related to the pharaoh's new religious beliefs; however, given the style of art at the time, others believe these are realistic images of the family displaying characteristics that may have been perfected in earlier representations. Speculation about Nefertiti's distinctive eye shape and the other mysterious features of the royal family points to various genetic disorders that appear in several representations (and physical remains) of rulers from the 18th Dynasty.⁴

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> The Late Period was a time of revival in Egyptian art. With the country in political turmoil, new rulers sought to give the impression of stability by using art forms from more ideal times in the past. In comparison with art from the Amarna period, there is an obvious rejection of the <span style="font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;"> elongated and almost grotesque figures. Though there is still concern for naturalism reflected in this art, there is also a return to order and proportion as was mandated in the Old Kingdom.
 * Late Period **

As can be seen in the faience to the left, prescribed proportions were once again the rule. The goddess Sekhmet is shown as taller than the pharaoh, and they both show the idealized body shapes that were the standard in Old Kingdom art. It continues the theme of pharaohs having their power through divine mandate, as Sekhmet is suckling the pharaoh. The animals at the bottom are reinforcing the Pharaoh's power over the land; the Horus falcon in the middle represents the pharaoh. The uraeus and the vulture represent Lower and Upper Egypt. The animals are depicted in greater detail than would have been seen in Old Kingdom art, but the age old symbolism remains the same.

One distinctive feature of the Late Period are sarcophagi with features like that of the one shown at right, belonging to Horkhebit. The portraits on these late period sarcophagi have squared off, full, and broad faces. The bodies are smooth and undefined, with protruding feet. The text on the lid is directly from the Book of the Dead. The interior was also covered in sunk relief hieroglyphs that were left rough, more than likely so they could be painted.

Cited References ¹ "Measured Proportions." //Looking at Ancient Egyptian Art.// 2009. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ² "Balance and Symmetry." //Looking at Ancient Egyptian Art.// 2009. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ³ Ertman, Earl L. "Nefertiti's Eyes. (Cover Story)." //Archaeology// //61.2 (2008): 28-32//. Academic Search Premier ⁴ Irwin M. Braverman MD, et al. " Akhenaten and the Strange Physiques of Egypt's 18th Dynasty." Annals of Internal Medicine. April 21, (2009) 150 :  556 - 560. ⁵ "Heirakonpolis tomb 100." //Digital Egypt for Universities.// 2000. The University College London.

Resources & Further Reading Kleiner, Fred S. et al. //Gardner's Art Through the Ages.// New York: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001. Print. Nicholson, Paul and Ian Shaw. //The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt.// London: British Museum Press, 1995. Print. SIlverman, David P. ed. //Ancient Egypt.// New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Print. Helen M. Strudwick, et al. " Egypt, ancient ." //Grove Art Online//. //Oxford Art Online//. 3 Dec. 2009. Online. Roehrig, Catherine H. " Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (2030-1640 B.C.)" Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Online.